Anatomy Of The Nervous System Discussion Paper

Anatomy Of The Nervous System Discussion Paper

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The Anatomy the Neuron

The basic unit of the nervous system is referred to as the neuron and is comprised of three parts. These are the cell body, dendrites, and axon. Kahle et al. (2022) explained that the cell body encloses the nucleus and organelles that make it possible for the neuron to function. Dendrites are the ones that receive incoming signals and the axon transmits electrical impulses away from the cell body. Explaining this, Vanderah and Gould (2020) stated that electrical impulse conduction takes place due to the changes in the electrical potential across the membrane of the neuron. The author further highlighted that these impulses are facilitated by the movement of ions through ion channels. Notably, the pathway of the impulse moves in one direction. This journey commences at the dendrites, passing through the cell body, and then travels to the axon whereby synapses are formed with other neurons or target cells. The outcome of this is the transmission of information within the nervous system. Anatomy Of The Nervous System Discussion Paper

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Components of the Subcortical Structures

There are several components that make up the subcortical structures. In their analysis, Kahle et al. (2022) mentioned that there are several important components that lie below the cerebral cortex. These specific components are the thalamus, hypothalamus, hippocampus, amygdala, basal ganglia, and brainstem. The role of the thalamus is to act as a relay station. Sensory information is relayed to the cortex for detailed and further processing. Importantly, this part of the brain largely regulates the basic functions such as temperature, hunger, and thirst. The hippocampus plays the role of learning and memory formation while the amygdala processes emotions and in the formation of emotional memories. The control of movement and coordination are facilitated by the basal ganglia and the brainstem regulates functions such as breathing, heart rate, and consciousness.

Learning, Memory, and Addiction Roles

The hippocampus is actively involved in learning, memory, and addiction facilitation. Vanderah and Gould (2020) highlighted that this part of the bran is tasked with the formation and consolidation of new memories thereby enabling people to recall information. Also, the hippocampus is actively involved in spatial navigation and memory for locations. On addiction, the hippocampus is associates drug-related cues and contexts with the rewarding effects of addictive substances. Explaining this, Vanderah and Gould (2020) mentioned that this association is the one that ultimately leads to cravings and relapses. Anatomy Of The Nervous System Discussion Paper

Neurotransmitters Located In the Nigra Striatal Region

The nigra striatal region has within it two crucial neurotransmitters that largely control movement. These two are dopamine and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA). On the one hand, dopamine, a chemical that is produced in the substantia nigra, is released in the striatum and is tasked with multiple aspects of motor control. In addition to this, it is also involved in initiating and coordinating movements and by doing this ensures smooth and coordinated motor function. In situations where there is reduced dopamine levels, individuals develop or suffer from disorders like Parkinson’s disease. On the other hand, GABA functions as an inhibitory neurotransmitter and plays the role of regulating the activity of neurons in this region primarily by fine-tuning the output of the basal ganglia and making sure an individual has precise motor control. Imbalances in GABA transmission, however, leads to movement disorders like dystonia or Huntington’s disease. Anatomy Of The Nervous System Discussion Paper

 Glia Cells Functions

Glia cells are located in central nervous system and their key function is to support and protect neurons (Wilton & Stevens, 2020). Astrocytes provide structural support, regulate extracellular fluid composition, and form the blood-brain barrier while the oligodendrocytes produce myelin to insulate axons and effectively enhance electrical impulse conduction. The microglia are the immune cells that work by monitoring for pathogens and debris to protect the brain from damage. Lastly, the ependymal cells participate in the production and circulation of cerebrospinal fluid, which nourishes and cushions the central nervous system. Anatomy Of The Nervous System Discussion Paper

The Synapse

Jamjoom et al. (2021) described the synapse as the specialized junction that exists between two neurons. In this location, chemical communication between the neurons takes place with the presynaptic neuron serving the function of releasing neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft. The researchers have further elaborated that these neurotransmitters then bind to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron’s dendrites, a process which effectively initiates changes in the postsynaptic neuron. This is achieved in two ways, one is by depolarizing or, two, hyperpolarizing it. Ideally, these two are the ones that determine whether an action potential will be generated or inhibited. While communication in the synapse does take place, it is unidirectional starting at the presynaptic neuron to the postsynaptic neuron.

Neuroplasticity

Neuroplasticity is explained by Puderbaugh and Emmady (2022) as the ability of the brain to adapt and reorganize its structure and function in response environmental changes. The researchers commented that this reorganization of the brain involves the formation of new connections between neurons which effectively strengthen or weaken existing connections, and create new neurons. Learning a new skill, like playing an instrument, for example, could lead to structural changes in the brain. Specifically, it could lead to the growth of new dendritic spines and the formation of new synapses. Importantly, neuroplasticity is often demonstrated when the brain is injured or when a person suffers from stroke. In these cases, the brain is able to rewire itself to compensate for damaged areas. What’s more, neuroplasticity is a lifelong phenomenon that carries on throughout life and is enhanced through learning and cognitive exercises. Anatomy Of The Nervous System Discussion Paper

References

Jamjoom, A. A., Rhodes, J., Andrews, P. J., & Grant, S. G. (2021). The synapse in traumatic brain injury. Brain, 144(1), 18-31. https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awaa321

Kahle, W., Frotscher, M., & Schmitz, F. (2022). Color Atlas of Human Anatomy: Vol. 3 Nervous System and Sensory Organs. Thieme.

Puderbaugh, M., & Emmady, P. D. (2022). Neuroplasticity. In StatPearls [Internet]. StatPearls Publishing.

Vanderah, T., & Gould, D. J. (2020). Nolte’s The Human Brain E-Book: An Introduction to its Functional Anatomy. Elsevier Health Sciences.

Wilton, D. K., & Stevens, B. (2020). The contribution of glial cells to Huntington’s disease pathogenesis. Neurobiology of disease, 143, 104963. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nbd.2020.104963 Anatomy Of The Nervous System Discussion Paper

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Address the following Short Answer prompts for your Assignment. Be sure to include references to the Learning Resources for this week.
1. In 4 or 5 sentences, describe the anatomy of the basic unit of the nervous system, the neuron. Include each part of the neuron and a general overview of electrical impulse conduction, the pathway it travels, and the net result at the termination of the impulse. Be specific and provide examples.
2. Answer the following (listing is acceptable for these questions):
o What are the major components that make up the subcortical structures?
o Which component plays a role in learning, memory, and addiction?
o What are the two key neurotransmitters located in the nigra striatal region of the brain that play a major role in motor control?
3. In 3 or 4 sentences, explain how glia cells function in the central nervous system. Be specific and provide examples.
4. The synapse is an area between two neurons that allows for chemical communication. In 3 or 4 sentences, explain what part of the neurons are communicating with each other and in which direction does this communication occur? Be specific.
5. In 3–5 sentences, explain the concept of “neuroplasticity.” Be specific and provide examples.